Simple hat knitting pattern

Those of you who know me in real life might know that I like to knit during lectures. The reason for this is that I'm the sort of person who needs something to fiddle with. Additionally, I often donate the hats that I knit, so it kind of kills two birds with one stone!

I have devised a simple hat pattern so that I can knit during lectures and still pay attention. Here is what the hats look like:

The hats are stretchy, so they can fit human heads just as easily as teddy bear heads :)

Now for the pattern... (I'm going to assume that you already know how to knit- if not, you can find lots of tutorials on Google and Youtube.)

YOU WILL NEED

US 5 circular knitting needle
US 5 double-pointed knitting needles (at least 4)
Yarn needle
Double knit (DK) weight yarn

METHOD

With the circular knitting needles, cast on 100 stitches.

Rows 1-10: K1, P1.
Rows 11 onwards: Knit all sts. Continue until work measures at least 18cm from the cast on edge, then start decreasing according to pattern below. (Note: I normally wait until I get home from a lecture before I start decreasing, as that requires more effort than simply knitting every stitch :P)

DECREASING ROWS
Row 1: k2tog. 50 sts remaining.
Row 2: Knit all sts.
Row 3: k2tog. 25 sts remaining. (I like to transfer to double-pointed needles during this step.)
Row 4: Knit all sts.
Row 5: k2tog until last st, K1. 13 sts remaining.
Row 6: Knit all sts.
Row 7: k2tog until last st, K1. 7 sts remaining.

Cut yarn, leaving a ~20cm tail. Using the yarn needle, thread the end through the remaining stitches. Pull tightly and tie in place. Weave in and tie off all loose ends. Your beanie is now complete!

HOW TO SPRUCE UP YOUR BEANIES

Once you're comfortable with the pattern, there are lots of things you can do to make your beanies a bit more special and unique! Here are some things you can try:

• Stripes
• Crochet some flowers and sew them on
• Make a pom-pom: wind some yarn around two fingers ~40 times (not too tightly!). Cut the yarn and then tie the middle part of the loop you've created. After you've tied the middle tightly, remove the yarn from your fingers, cut the loops, and fluff up your new pom-pom :)
• Google some Fair Isle designs and incorporate them into your hat.
• Try a different kind of "brim": for example, do 25 rows of K1, P1 ribbing rather than 10 and fold the bottom edge up.
• Cast on fewer stitches and make a smaller hat for kids.

Med school application resources

Those of you who know me in real life may be aware that I have just been offered a place at a medical school, commencing 2019! Now that I have an acceptance in my hot little hands, I feel somewhat qualified to talk about some of the resources that I've used along the way.

General Resources

GradReady Free Seminar on the Application Process

What it is: A 1hr (if I remember correctly) seminar giving an overview of the application process.

Pros: Good overview, especially if you're still trying to get your head around the process. No heavy sales pitch- there was a mention of GradReady courses but only on one or two slides, and such mentions were mainly limited to, "We have courses if you're interested."

Cons: Have to make the effort to attend in-person.

Verdict: If it's reasonably convenient for you to go and you want a bit of clarification on the process, then you might as well go. But if you have to go out of your way to attend, you might as well just get the information you need online.

PagingDr Forum

What it is: Online forum for applicants to postgraduate medicine. Can be found at http://pagingdr.net.

Pros: Fairly friendly community, good place to talk about the emotional side of applying. Some of the community members are doctors so could probably give you advice on what medicine is actually like (not that I've asked). One member is on an admissions committee so she often lets PagingDr members know when GEMSAS number crunching is complete (meaning that results will be released soon). PagingDr members who have received interview or course offers often share their scores. You know those "unofficial minimum" scores that often circulate various GAMSAT prep websites? Most of those "unofficial minimum" scores are derived from PagingDr data. Oh and PagingDr also has boards for people who have been accepted, and even people who have graduated.

Cons: Generally only has a few active threads at once. Many of the threads on medical school study resources have not been touched in a long time. On the other hand, this could also be seen as a positive as it means that there's not a lot of irrelevant stuff to sift through. PagingDr has also been slow over the past few days- possibly due to increased traffic due to release of offers. Discussion of GAMSAT prep materials is forbidden (though this is arguably also a pro), so you won't be getting advice on that stuff from PagingDr.

Verdict: Free, and has a lot of resources in one place. You have nothing to lose and a lot to gain by creating an account.

GAMSAT

Gold Standard GAMSAT (2016? edition)

What it is: A textbook that comes with a year's worth of online access. I bought the 2016 edition (I think- can't double-check as I no longer have it), back when it was only one book that cost $185.07. (I remember the 7 cents because I made a joke about it to the shop assistant.)

Pros: Good overview of what needs to be covered in the GAMSAT. Plenty of practice stimuli for the essay portion. Lots of online MCQs with the online access which helped to reinforce the concepts. Videos were pretty clear and easy to understand. Full-length practice exam at the back of the book.

Cons: The Gold Standard GAMSAT is pretty much the Gold Standard MCAT repackaged, and it shows. The style of questions for the online MCQs and practice exam was a little different to that in the actual GAMSAT, as the Gold Standard questions seemed to require more assumed knowledge. Online access is only for a year, and viewing time for the videos was limited. Also, the newer version of the Gold Standard GAMSAT has been split into three books, meaning you have to pay a lot more now.

Verdict: Good overview of the concepts that you need to know. If you can find a secondhand copy of the old version, it might be worth getting your hands on just for that alone. Sure, you might not get the online access, but you can probably get more and better videos from Khan Academy, iLectureOnline and similar resources anyway.

Gold Standard Free GAMSAT Question of the Day

What it is: A daily GAMSAT question posted at http://www.goldstandard-gamsat.com/gamsat-practice-question-of-the-day

Pros: Free question!

Cons: Style might not always be like what you will get on the GAMSAT.

Verdict: Free, only one question per day, why the hell not??

Gold Standard Free Monthly Webinars

What it is: A free 2hr (if I remember correctly) webinar held every month. Gold Standard often holds a poll (I think on their Facebook page?) asking candidates which topic they would like to see covered on the next webinar.

Pros: Logical progression from discussing concepts and tips to working through a practice question. Chatbox to allow for interaction between participants. Often a lively back-and-forth between participants and Dr Ferdinand for that reason. Dr Ferdinand himself is quite friendly and welcoming. No sales pitch- sometimes Dr Ferdinand might list some additional resources. On at least one occasion he even put down some competing resources that he thought we might like! I think the webinars are recorded so that if you can't attend, you can listen later.

Cons: Practice questions are generally answered by posting to the chatbox. Seeing other participants' responses may be distracting if you are trying to solve the question yourself. Generally only get time to work through a couple of questions.

Verdict: Free, encouraging, only takes up 1-2 hours of your time once a month on a Sunday and they're even recorded if you can't attend. I would definitely recommend having a look and seeing if the style works for you.

AceGAMSAT Free GAMSAT Webinar

What it is: A 1hr webinar on the structure of the GAMSAT and tips for each section. (I actually attended this while waiting for my final offer. I had just had my wisdom teeth out and I was seriously bored/curious to know what their secret tricks were.)

Pros: Some of the tips (like resources for building up your vocabulary) were probably sound advice.

Cons: Largely just a sales pitch for AceGAMSAT. ("Get our course, normally $397, for the low low price of $317!") Most of the tips were also general exam tips that you could find elsewhere, like "do the easier questions first."

Verdict: Don't even bother, unless you're a masochist like me and/or need an excuse to finish a knitting project that you've had on the backburner for a while (also me).

Essential University Physics

What it is: A first-year physics textbook. (I mainly bought it as a way of throwing money at my problems :P)

Pros: Covers more than you need to know about physics for the GAMSAT. Presumably good for someone doing an introductory physics course at uni.

Cons: Covers way more than you need to know about physics for the GAMSAT. Question style is obviously very dissimilar to the GAMSAT (e.g. many questions require a calculator) as this is just a general physics textbook.

Verdict: I had this grand plan that if I taught myself first-year physics, I'd be able to smash the physics questions (I haven't done physics since year 10). In reality, I only got to chapter 2 before I simply couldn't be bothered any more. Don't put yourself through this. (Same goes for if you are thinking of doing something similar to brush up on chemistry or biology.) Also, it's not cheap either- I thought I remembered the books being $50 but according to the bookshop website the price is closer to $120. (Though to be fair, they might have been having some massive sale when I bought them)

Interviews

Fraser's Interview Training Free Live Seminar- Public and Rural Health

What it is: Live seminar covering the interview process, with a focus on public and rural health.

Pros: Covered a decent amount of content. Both people running the seminar were current students who were able to talk about their own interview experiences. There were practice questions as well. Generally one or two locations are recorded and uploaded to the free version of Fraser's Interview Atlas. No hard sell- only one slide was dedicated to Fraser's paid interview courses, but they were presented as "here is more information if you need it." One of the speakers explicitly stated that "not everyone needs to do an interview course."

Cons: Only covered those specific topics (though it did cover them in a fair amount of depth).

Verdict: This seminar felt like it was worth it due to the depth of content covered and practice questions. I would say that it's worth attending or at least watching the recorded version on the interview atlas.

Fraser's Interview Atlas- Free Version

What it is: An online learning platform with videos and information to help with interview preparation.

Pros: Good quality videos. Cover a range of topics. Free members only get a handful of videos, but they're spread nicely over the different topics. Free members also get to see recordings of previous live seminars. Weekly reminder emails to motivate you to keep working on your interview preparation.

Cons: Most of the content is locked behind a paywall. To my understanding, it's impossible to buy just the interview atlas- you have to buy a whole package, which will set you back at least $799 (or $1599 for the comprehensive package).

Verdict: Good free resource that is worth checking out. The packages (for the full version) are quite expensive, though.

PassGAMSAT Free Interview Webinar

What it is: A 1hr 45min webinar about interviews.

Pros: There were a few practice questions throughout the webinar. Volunteers could have their microphones un-muted, practice answering the questions and get instant feedback on their responses. Decent overview of the interview process for those who weren't already familiar with it. The webinar was recorded so that you could watch it later.

Cons: Most of the webinar was an extended sales pitch. Testimonials were interspersed between the different sections of the webinar. The last 30 minutes in particular were devoted to plugging a $997 interview course. Even the audience questions were essentially answered with "I think my course will be right for you!"

Verdict: If you have absolutely nothing better to do with your time, you might as well log on and try your hand at the practice questions as you can get instant feedback. Otherwise, don't bother.

Summary

Firstly, just remember that the resources above are only the ones that I have tried. There are many, many more resources out there (both free and paid), but I could only review the ones that I've actually used.

Here is a quick summary of what I thought of the resources:

Good Resources (What are you waiting for? Sign up now!)

• PagingDr Forum (general resources | free)
• Gold Standard Free Question of the Day (GAMSAT | free)
• Gold Standard Free Monthly Webinars (GAMSAT | free)
• Fraser's Interview Training Free Live Seminar (interviews | free)
• Fraser's Interview Atlas- Free Version (interviews | free)

Okay Resources (Perhaps worth checking out, but you don't need to go out of your way to get them)

• GradReady Free Seminar on the Application Process (general resources | free)
• Gold Standard GAMSAT- 2016 edition (GAMSAT | $185.07)

Bad Resources (Don't waste your time on these!!)

• AceGAMSAT Free GAMSAT Webinar (GAMSAT | free)
• Essential University Physics (GAMSAT | ~$120??)
• PassGAMSAT Free Interview Webinar (interviews | free)

Saturation in qualitative research

And we're back to talking about qualitative research! Sorry not sorry.

What is saturation?

Saturation is commonly used as a determinant of sample size in qualitative research. So what is saturation? It is usually thought of as the point where there is no new codes, or no new data for development of themes, or where the complete range of theoretical constructs is fully represented by the data. There are four main models of saturation, and sometimes more than one model may be combined:

1. Theoretical saturation- Uses the development of categories and theory as criteria for additional data collection. Sampling is guided by the necessary similarities and contrasts required by the emerging theory, in a process known as theoretical sampling.
2. Inductive thematic saturation- Focuses on the identification of new codes or themes and on the number of these themes, rather than their completeness.
3. A priori thematic saturation- Collects data in order to exemplify a theory, rather than to refine or develop theory. Points to the idea of pre-determined theoretical categories.
4. Data saturation- Stops collecting when nothing new is found. Relies on simply identifying redundancy, without referencing theory at all.

Where and why should we seek saturation?

Saturation may have different relevance and meaning in different types of research. In a more deductive study (using theory to analyse data), the concept of saturation may help you to determine how well the pre-determined codes are represented. In a more inductive study (using data to generate a theory), the concept of saturation might involve how well the new codes and themes are identified. On the other hand, saturation might not be a very relevant concept in some other types of research, such as narrative research.

When and how can we achieve saturation?

The question of "when is saturation achieved?" generally depends on the model of saturation chosen. It is important not to decide on saturation too early on, as this may produce superficial results.

Alternatively, instead of asking, "When is saturation achieved?" or "Has saturation occurred?" (i.e. viewing saturation as a process), it may be more appropriate to ask, "How much is enough?" (i.e. viewing saturation as an endpoint). The problem with the "endpoint" model is that looking for a saturation "point" often requires making predictive claims on data that you don't have yet, as you're basically assuming that all of the other potential data out there is just going to be a rehash of what you already have. In fact, some studies consciously sample beyond the saturation "endpoint," just in case. Using a "process" model requires using ongoing judgement to figure out the point of diminishing returns with regard to sampling and discovery of new insights.

References

Saunders, B, Sim, J, Kingstone, T, Baker, S, Waterfield, J, Bartlam, B, Burroughs, H, Jinks, C 2018, 'Saturation in qualitative research: exploring its conceptualization and operationalization', Quality & Quantity, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 1893-1907.

Aetiology and epidemiology of cerebral palsy

Yep, it's another post about the development of cerebral palsy (see here for more). Since we don't know the "true cause" of cerebral palsy, this post will mainly discuss different risk factors.

Brain damage in cerebral palsy

The cause of brain damage in cerebral palsy is thought to be a combination of cytokine-induced periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) (which I have explained here) and ischaemic damage (possibly caused by asphyxia), complicated by later intraventricular haemorrhage and hydrocephalus (fluid in the brain).

PVL usually affects the brain between 20-32 weeks, and while often associated with diplegic cerebral palsy, it is not exclusively associated with diplegia. PVL may also occur in infants with sepsis, or in young children treated with alpha-interferon for giant haemangioma (tangle of blood vessels).

Acute intrapartum asphyxia is thought to only be involved in 2-10% of cases of cerebral palsy. Some fetuses may already be damaged before entering labour, but a difficult labour may increase the amount of damage. Cooling the baby to reduce metabolic need may reduce early neurodisability.

Birth weight

Birth weight is a risk factor for cerebral palsy. Babies that are small for gestation age are more likely to be damaged by hypoxic-ischaemic events, while babies that are large for gestational age are at a higher risk related to maternal diabetes and obstructed labour. Symmetrical growth retardation (underweight, short, small head circumference) also increases the risk of developmental delay, even when asphyxia does not occur.

It has also been suggested that intrauterine growth restriction, which may result in babies being small for gestational age, might be a result of the brain damage that causes cerebral palsy, rather than being a cause of the brain damage. After an insult to the brain, intrauterine growth restriction of the brain may help to preserve or divert energy to critical areas.

Socioeconomic factors

Cerebral palsy is more prevalent among those of a lower socioeconomic class. It is unsure as to why this may be the case, but hypotheses include possible nutritional deficiencies and/or infections.

Multiple births

Multiple births (twins, triplets, etc.) increases the risk of cerebral palsy. This may be due to a variety of factors, such as twin-to-twin transfusions or in-utero death of a twin, and the increased risk of vascular anomalies of the placenta, prematurity, small size for gestational age (see above), premature rupture of membranes, and/or hypoxia.

Genetic factors

There is some evidence suggesting at least a partial genetic basis for cerebral palsy. There is an increased risk in twins, particularly in monozygotic twins. There is also an increased risk of a sibling has cerebral palsy. Cerebral palsy often appears in familial "clusters" where several members have similar types of cerebral palsy, and there is a greater risk in cosanguineous ("inter-breeding") families. In fact, some families with multiple affected children have been found to have some kind of autosomal recessive disorder, but this only accounts for a very small number of childrren with cerebral palsy.

It is thought that the genetic factors underlying cerebral palsy might impact the intrauterine environment, rather than the fetus itself. Some of the genes that have been investigated are associated with polymorphism in IL-6 and mutations in the prothrombin gene.

Malformations

Up to 12% of children with cerebral palsy have some kind of brain malformation, such as hydrocephalis (fluid in the brain) and microcephaly (small brain). Some of these malformations may be acquired, others genetic. People with cerebral palsy also have a higher likelihood of malformations in the heart, palate, eyes and limbs as compared to typically developing children. (Interestingly, these malformations are more common in people with cerebral palsy who were born at full term, as opposed to preterm.) Some of the brain malformations in cerebral palsy may be due to genetic factors which produce disorders of cortical migration, such as lissencephaly ("smooth brain," i.e. a brain without the usual bumps and folds).

Cerebrovascular events

Cerebrovascular events may also contribute to the development of cerebral palsy. In the 1st and 2nd trimester, the most common type of cerebrovascular event is cortical migration disorder (which is also seen in congenital cytomegalovirus infection- hmm, maybe that's why the Cerebral Palsy Alliance keeps posting about CMV on Facebook...). In the 3rd trimester, the most common type of event is a discrete infarct. Maternal and fetal thrombotic or haemorrhagic disorders may also contribute to these types of events, and ultimately to cerebral palsy.

Placental pathology

There is no single placental pathology associated with cerebral palsy. Furthermore, the extent of damage is important as the placenta has around 30% spare capacity before fetal growth is affected.

Chronic inflammatory placental lesions are one type of pathology that is associated with cerebral palsy. These lesions are associated with PVL and diplegic cerebral palsy and are likely linked with IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha, which damage developing oligodendrocytes. (Such cytokine-induced white matter damage may also be seen occasionally after neonatal meningitis.)

Maternal genitourinary tract infections (e.g. Chlamydia, Trichomonas, UTIs, etc.) during pregnancy may also increase the risk of cerebral palsy, particularly if these infections occur during the first or second trimesters. Gestational age and birth weight are protective factors against such harm. Paradoxically, treating these infections might even increase the risk of cerebral palsy in some cases, perhaps by enhancing cytokine responses, but this is still uncertain.

A note on similar disorders

There are many disorders that present similarly to cerebral palsy, but are actually something different. Some of these disorders, unlike cerebral palsy, have known causes and are treatable. For instance, some disorders of dopamine metabolism may present similarly to cerebral palsy, but can be treated.

References

Eunson, P 2012, 'Aetiology and epidemiology of cerebral palsy', Paediatrics and Child Health, vol. 22, no. 9, pp. 361-366.

Self-determination theory and motivation

Motivation is a state of energy, direction, and persistence. When motivation is authentic, it can boost interest, excitement, and confidence, all of which can in turn boost performance, persistence, creativity, vitality, self-esteem, and well-being. As such, many researchers have been interested in factors relating to motivation and how it can be improved. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is one such approach to motivation. SDT highlights the importance of humans' inner resources and centres on three main needs of competence, relatedness and autonomy. Let's take a look at aspects of SDT.

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is a natural inclination towards mastery, exploration, and interest. People will only develop intrinsic motivation if an activity holds intrinsic interest for them. There is a lot of variability in intrinsic motivation, which cognitive evaluation theory (a subtheory within SDT) aims to explain.

Cognitive evaluation theory primarily looks at social and environmental factors behind the variability of intrinsic motivation. Cognitive evaluation theory assumes that intrinsic motivation will flourish if circumstances permit, but can be enhanced by other factors. For instance, social-contextual events that conduce feelings of competence can enhance intrinsic motivation, as long as there is also an internal perceived locus of autonomy present. Intrinsic motivation is also more likely to flourish in contexts characterised by security and relatedness.

Self-regulation of extrinsic motivation

Just like how cognitive evaluation theory looks at intrinsic motivation, a second subtheory in SDT, organismic integration theory, looks at extrinsic motivation.

There are many types of extrinsic motivation that can be more or less placed on a scale from least to most intrinsic. At the low end of the scale is amotivation, which is a complete lack of motivation, which may be due to not valuing the activity, not feeling competent, and not expecting the desired outcome (i.e. "why bother trying if it won't work?"). The next type is external regulation, where the action is only performed to meet an external demand, and thus comes with an external perceived locus of causality (e.g. "I'm only going to tutorials to get participation marks.").

As we move through the different types of extrinsic motivation, they become less extrinsic and more intrinsic. Introjected regulation refers to taking in regulation, but not fully accepting it as one's own. For instance, someone might want to avoid guilt or anxiety, attain pride, and so on. Introjected regulation mainly works via contingent self-esteem, and is related to increased effort and anxiety, but a decreased ability to cope with failure. Like external regulation, introjected regulation is also associated with an external perceived locus of causality.

Regulation through identification is the conscious valuing of a goal, so the action is accepted or owned as being personally important. Unlike introjected regulation, regulation through identification is related to increased interest and enjoyment, as well as more positive coping styles.

Integrated regulation is the most intrinsic type of external motivation (i.e. as close as you can get without it being fully intrinsic motivation). Identified regulations are fully assimilated to the self, but ultimately actions are still performed to attain separable outcomes rather than for inherent enjoyment. Hence, integrated regulation is still not fully intrinsic.

Facilitating integration

Greater levels of internalisation and "intrinsic-ness" are related to increased behavioural effectiveness and persistence, as well as increased assimilation within a social group. Sounds good, right? So, how do we encourage internalisation?

To answer this question, SDT focuses on the three needs that I introduced in the opening paragraph: relatedness, competence, and autonomy. Relatedness is of central importance; after all, the main reason why actions are performed is usually because said actions are prompted, modelled, or valued by significant others. Competence and autonomy should also facilitate internalisation. It may also be important for people to grasp the meaning of an action and synthesise it with their other goals and values. On the flipside, if motivation is diminished, it is important to check to ensure that the needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness are not being somehow thwarted.

Psychological needs and mental health

Relatedness, competence, and autonomy are not only important for motivation: they are also important for overall health and well-being. There are many methods in which these needs can be satisfied, and these methods may change over time and culture. The relative importance of each need may also change over time and culture. Well-being will improve so long as these needs are being satisfied, no matter which methods are used to satisfy them.

A focus on intrinsic vs. extrinsic aspirations may also affect well-being. A strong importance on intrinsic aspirations is associated with increased well-being, self-esteem and self-actualisation, as well as decreased depression and anxiety. The opposite is true for a focus on extrinsic aspirations. A person's satisfaction in their life roles has been shown to be attributable to the degree to which the role supports authenticity and autonomy.

References

Ryan, RM, Deci, EL 2000, 'Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being', The American psychologist, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 68-78.

Ethics in qualitative research

Just like in many forms of quantitative research, there are many ethical dilemmas that you may encounter in qualitative research. This post will start by talking about some different ethical positions before discussing these ethical dilemmas.

Traditional ethical positions

Two of the most commonly-seen traditional ethical positions are utilitarianism and principlism. Utilitarianism, or utilitarian consequentialism, emphasises consequences over intent and aims to choose the action that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of individuals. Principlism, or the duty ethics of principles, judges actions by their intent, rather than by their consequences.

Alternative ethical positions

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics considers ethical behaviour to be contextual or situational. It emphasises the role of phronesis, or cultivated practical wisdom. In virtue ethics, the researcher's own moral values and skills are emphasised.

Feminist ethics

Feminist ethics, as the name implies, focuses on feminist-informed social values. It emphasises care and responsibility, and the need to expose the diversity of realities. Research informed by feminist ethics aims to be collaborative and participatory.

Culturally responsive relational reflexive ethics (CRRRE)

CRRRE emphasises the need for flexibility as researchers cannot fully understand the perspectives of other cultures. It attempts to understand and affirm other cultures by valuing the dignity, mutual respect and connectedness within and between cultures.

Ethical dilemmas in qualitative research

Informed consent

As qualitative research can be open-ended and a researcher's direction may change somewhat based on new information, it is important to have an ongoing process of construction and negotiation, rather than simply a one-off informed consent form.

Anonymity and confidentiality

It may be difficult or impossible to give absolute confidentiality, especially since details may unintentionally reveal a participant's identity or provide a mistaken identity. Also, some participants may prefer to be named, depending on the research.

Research as therapy

Some participants may find it therapeutic to talk about their experiences. However, it is very important to set boundaries, and clarify the purposes and role of the researcher as compared to therapists. If you are dealing with a sensitive topic, it may be a good idea to make a list of other support services that you can refer to, should the need arise.

The Internet

Internet research has ethical dilemmas of its own. For instance, if you are looking at message boards, blogs, and the like, you may need to think about the need for informed consent from message board users, and so on. You may also need to pay attention to copyright laws. For more information, check out the ethical guidelines from the Association of Internet Researchers.

Protecting the researcher

The researcher may need support and debriefing themselves, especially if they are researching a difficult or sensitive topic.

References

Sparkes, AC & Smith, B 2013, Qualitative Research Methods in Sport, Exercise and Health: From Process to Product, Taylor & Francis Ltd, London.

Evaluating qualitative research

Even though qualitative research is often seen to be more loosely-defined, it is still possible to evaluate its quality, even though appropriate quality measures may differ slightly between qualitative and quantitative research. Let's take a look.

Reliability vs. Dependability

Reliability, or "repeatability," is important in quantitative research, hence the need for quantitative researchers to provide enough information so that their study can be replicated. Reliability, however, is not necessarily a good measure for evaluating fieldwork, as what people might say in an interview one day might be different to another day. Furthermore, you may get slightly different responses and results depending on the participants. In other words, you cannot step into the same stream twice. A slightly different, but more appropriate metric, is dependability, which represents the stability of the data over time.

Objectivity vs. Confirmability

As there is subjectivity required in processes such as coding, qualitative researchers cannot really strive for complete objectivity. Instead, confirmability may be a better metric. Confirmability assures that the data, interpretations and outcomes are rooted in the context and people studied, rather than in the personal biases of the researchers. In order to strive for confirmability, the decision-making trail, purposes and assumptions should all be made explicit. It may also be helpful to have a supportive but "critical friend" to be a sounding board as you interpret the data.

External validity vs. Generalisability

Generalisability is qualitative research's answer to external validity. Just like external validity, generalisability means that the findings should be applicable to other settings, and theories should be able to be expanded and generalised. Qualitative research also aims for generativity, which refers to the ways in which the work enables someone to see or act upon phenomena. Unlike in quantitative research, where external validity is usually judged by concrete factors such as sampling methods, the responsibility for judging the generalisability of qualitative studies rests on the readers of the study.

More about validity...

Validity refers to the degree to which the researchers' claims correspond to reality. Valid studies measure what they intend to measure. There are several different approaches towards the concept of validity in qualitative research.

• Parallel perspective / transactional notion of validity- This approach focuses on establishing a match between the realities of the researchers and the researched. Techniques used include triangulation and member checking (allowing the participants to read the transcripts and results and provide feedback).
• Diversification perspective / transformational approach- This approach focuses on "catalytic validity," or the degree to which the research process energised participants and gave them a better knowledge of reality. Ultimately, this approach focuses on whether the research made a difference.
• Letting go perspective- This perspective abandons the notion of validity completely and focuses instead on characterising traits of the research. A few sets of criteria for looking at these traits have been devised, though there is also the option of developing the criteria while engaging in inquiry.

References

Sparkes, AC & Smith, B 2013, Qualitative Research Methods in Sport, Exercise and Health: From Process to Product, Taylor & Francis Ltd, London.